[论文解读] Nonlinear Valuation under Collateral, Credit Risk and Funding Costs: A Numerical Case Study Extending Black-Scholes
本文提出了一种非线性无套利定价框架,用于在抵押品、交易对手信用风险和融资成本条件下定价衍生品,通过将CVA、DVA、FVA和LVA调整直接嵌入现金流修改中实现。利用广义Black-Scholes模型上的最小二乘蒙特卡洛算法,研究表明融资风险和非线性性——通过非线性估值调整(NVA)量化——对交易价格有显著影响,NVA占总价格的10%至15%,挑战了传统的加法调整模型。
We develop an arbitrage-free framework for consistent valuation of derivative trades with collateralization, counterparty credit gap risk, and funding costs, following the approach first proposed by Pallavicini and co-authors in 2011. Based on the risk-neutral pricing principle, we derive a general pricing equation where Credit, Debit, Liquidity and Funding Valuation Adjustments (CVA, DVA, LVA and FVA) are introduced by simply modifying the payout cash-flows of the deal. Funding costs and specific close-out procedures at default break the bilateral nature of the deal price and render the valuation problem a non-linear and recursive one. CVA and FVA are in general not really additive adjustments, and the risk for double counting is concrete. We introduce a new adjustment, called a Non-linearity Valuation Adjustment (NVA), to address double-counting. The theoretical risk free rate disappears from our final equations. The framework can be tailored also to CCP trading under initial and variation margins, as explained in detail in Brigo and Pallavicini (2014). In particular, we allow for asymmetric collateral and funding rates, replacement close-out and re-hypothecation. The valuation equation takes the form of a backward stochastic differential equation or semi-linear partial differential equation, and can be cast as a set of iterative equations that can be solved by least-squares Monte Carlo. We propose such a simulation algorithm in a case study involving a generalization of the benchmark model of Black and Scholes for option pricing. Our numerical results confirm that funding risk has a non-trivial impact on the deal price, and that double counting matters too. We conclude the article with an analysis of large scale implications of non-linearity of the pricing equations.
研究动机与目标
- 开发一种无套利估值框架,一致地考虑场外衍生品的抵押品、交易对手信用风险和融资成本。
- 解决融资和信用调整的非加法性与递归性,这些特性使传统加法调整模型失效。
- 引入非线性估值调整(NVA),以量化和校正CVA与FVA计算中的重复计数风险。
- 通过基于可观测市场利率(如OIS、信用利差和融资利率)而非不可观测的理论无风险利率,消除对理论无风险利率的依赖。
- 通过扩展Black-Scholes模型的数值案例研究,展示非线性性对定价的实际影响。
提出的方法
- 基于风险中性估值推导一般定价方程,通过修改交易的现金流来整合CVA、DVA、LVA和FVA。
- 将估值问题建模为后向随机微分方程(BSDE)或半线性PDE,反映融资和违约风险的递归与非线性依赖关系。
- 引入非线性估值调整(NVA)以衡量因对称化借贷利率或以无风险结算替代替代结算而产生的估值误差。
- 应用最小二乘蒙特卡洛(LSMC)算法数值求解迭代的、向后时间的方程,实现基于模拟的估值。
- 扩展Black-Scholes模型以包含非对称抵押品和融资利率、违约时的替代结算以及再抵押,与ISDA和CSA市场实践保持一致。
- 使用可观测市场输入(如信用利差、CSA利率和国债融资利率)校准模型,避免在最终方程中使用理论无风险利率。
实验结果
研究问题
- RQ1如何在不假设加法或线性调整的前提下,一致地将CVA、DVA、FVA和LVA嵌入衍生品定价中?
- RQ2融资成本和非对称融资利率对衍生品交易最终价格的影响如何,特别是在非线性估值框架下?
- RQ3估值方程的非线性结构在多大程度上使投资组合聚合失效,并导致聚合依赖性?
- RQ4在使用简化加法调整时,重复计数引入的估值误差有多大,是否可以量化?
- RQ5非线性估值调整(NVA)能否有效衡量并校正因对称化融资和结算程序而引入的误差?
主要发现
- 非线性估值调整(NVA)占包含融资成本的总交易价格的10%至15%,表明非线性性具有显著且不可忽视的影响。
- 融资风险对交易价格有不可忽视的影响,其影响程度取决于借贷利率之间的不对称性。
- 估值方程本质上是非线性和递归的,意味着交易价格依赖于融资策略,而融资策略又依赖于价格,从而破坏了双边对称性。
- 由于融资成本和替代结算的存在,投资组合价值的聚合并非加法性,导致估值依赖于投资组合构成。
- 该框架消除了对不可观测无风险利率的依赖,仅使用OIS、信用利差和国债融资利率等可观测市场利率。
- LSMC算法成功求解了迭代的向后方程,在广义Black-Scholes设定下实现了模型的数值验证。
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