[论文解读] A wide field survey at the Northern Ecliptic Pole: II. Number counts and galaxy colours in B_j, R, and K
本研究在北天黄道极区域的B_j、R和K波段开展中等深度广视野巡天,覆盖1平方度,深度分别为24.25、23.0和17.5星等。结果揭示了R-K颜色随星等增加而显著变红的趋势,尽管标准星系演化模型能较好拟合光学B_j-R颜色,却无法再现该趋势,表明在模拟暗弱星系的近红外颜色演化方面存在根本性挑战。
We present a medium deep survey carried out in the three filters B_j, R and K. The survey covers homogeneously the central square degree around the Northern Ecliptic Pole (NEP) down to a completeness limit of 24.25, 23.0 and 17.5mag in B_j, R and K, respectively. While the near infrared data have been presented in the first paper of this series, here we concentrate on the optical data and the results based on the combined B_jRK-data. The unique combination of area and depth in our survey allows to perform a variety of investigations based on homogeneous material covering more than ten magnitudes in apparent brightness. We analyze the number counts for point-like and extended sources in B_j and R to determine the slopes in dlogN/dm and to test for possible breaks therein. While we can confirm the slopes found in previous works with a higher statistical significance, the largest uncertainty remaining for the amplitudes is galactic extinction. We determine the colour distributions of galaxies in B_j-R and R-K down to B_j=24.0 and K=18.0mag, respectively. The distributions in both colours are modeled using galaxy spectral evolution synthesis. We demonstrate that the standard models of galaxy evolution are unable to reproduce the steady reddening trend in R-K despite flawless fits to the colour distributions in the optical (B_j-R). The B_jRK data collected over a large area provides the opportunity to select rare objects like candidates for high-redshift galaxies and extremely red objects (EROs, R-K>5.0) and to determine their surface density. Our EROs are selected at an intermediate magnitude range and contain contribution from both galactic as well as extragalactic sources. At K<16.5mag, where a morphological classification is possible, the stellar component dominates the sample.
研究动机与目标
- 获取光学与近红外波段的均匀、深度测光数据,以支持对星系数量密度和颜色的稳健统计分析。
- 检验标准星系演化模型是否能再现跨越10星等动态范围的B_j-R和R-K颜色分布。
- 测定极红源(EROs,R-K > 5.0星等)的表面密度,并评估银河系恒星与高红移星系的贡献。
- 探究随着星等增加而观测到的R-K颜色变红趋势的起源,特别是在暗弱星等下的情况。
- 评估当前光谱演化合成模型在拟合深巡天多波段颜色数据时的局限性。
提出的方法
- 利用卡拉斯托欧洲-西班牙天文中心在北天黄道极附近开展广视野巡天,覆盖1 deg²区域。
- 对点源和扩展源分别测量B_j和R波段的源数密度,通过拟合幂律关系确定dlogN/dm的斜率。
- 从视星等跨度达10星等的样本中推导星系颜色分布B_j-R和R-K,最低达到B_j = 24.0 mag和K = 18.0 mag。
- 应用谱能量分布(SED)合成模型,模拟不同演化情景下的星系颜色,包括光度演化和星系类型混合。
- 在K < 16.5 mag时利用形态分类区分ERO样本中的恒星与河外源。
- 将观测到的颜色分布与模型预测进行比较,识别R-K颜色演化中的差异。
实验结果
研究问题
- RQ1标准星系演化模型能否再现K星等跨度10星等范围内的观测R-K颜色分布?
- RQ2为何星系的R-K颜色随星等增加而系统性变红,而B_j-R颜色却保持相对稳定或变得更蓝?
- RQ3在K ≈ 17.5 mag处,极红源(R-K > 5.0星等)中银河系恒星与高红移星系所占比例是多少?
- RQ4银河系消光与红化修正中的不确定性在多大程度上影响了数密度幂律拟合的幅度?
- RQ5观测到的R-K颜色随星等增加的趋势是否与光度演化或星族年龄梯度模型一致?
主要发现
- B_j和R波段的数密度斜率在高统计显著性下得到确认,分别为dlogN/dm ≈ 0.48和0.37,尽管幅度不确定性仍主要受银河系消光影响。
- B_j-R颜色分布保持近似恒定,直至B_j = 22.3 mag,之后在更暗星等下变蓝,表明暗弱蓝星系的出现。
- R-K颜色分布显示出强烈的变红趋势,从K = 12星等等级时的R-K = 2.6上升至K = 17.8星等等级时的R-K = 3.8,表明其随星等系统性演化。
- 所测试的两种星系演化模型均无法再现观测到的R-K颜色趋势:一种在明亮端拟合良好但在暗弱端过蓝,另一种在暗弱端拟合良好但在明亮端过蓝。
- 在K = 17.5 mag处,EROs(R-K > 5.0星等)的表面密度仅比K = 20.0 mag时降低四倍,表明银河系恒星可能有显著贡献,或ERO数密度下降趋势趋于平缓。
- 即使优化星系类型混合与光度函数参数,标准模型也无法解释观测到的R-K颜色演化,表明当前演化框架存在根本性局限。
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