[Paper Review] The Solar Eclipses of the Pharaoh Akhenaten

Emil Khalisi|arXiv (Cornell University)|Apr 27, 2020

Ancient Egypt and Archaeology12 references4 citations

TL;DR

This paper proposes that Akhenaten acceded to the Egyptian throne in 1382 BCE, based on the hypothesis that three annular solar eclipses in 1399, 1389, and 1378 BCE influenced his radical shift to monotheistic sun worship. By aligning these celestial events with historical and astronomical evidence—particularly Hittite synchronisms and lunar dating—the study repositions Akhenaten’s reign earlier than conventional chronology, offering a causal explanation for his religious revolution.

ABSTRACT

We suggest an earlier date for the accession of the pharaoh Akhenaten of the New Kingdom in Egypt. His first year of reign would be placed in 1382 BCE. This conjecture is based on the possible witness of three annular eclipses of the sun during his lifetime: in 1399, 1389, and 1378 BCE. They would explain the motive for his worship of the sun that left its mark on later religious communities. Evidence from Akhenaten's era is scarce, though some lateral dependencies can be disentangled on implementing the historical course of the subsequent events.

Motivation & Objective

• To re-examine the chronology of Akhenaten’s reign using astronomical evidence.
• To explain the motive behind Akhenaten’s radical sun worship, traditionally unexplained in historical accounts.
• To resolve inconsistencies in New Kingdom dating by aligning solar eclipses with known historical events.
• To support a revised, earlier accession date for Akhenaten by integrating eclipse data with Hittite and Egyptian synchronisms.
• To challenge the conventional high chronology of the New Kingdom by proposing a 'long' chronology supported by eclipse witness.

Proposed method

• Analyzing the visibility and timing of three annular solar eclipses in 1399, 1389, and 1378 BCE for potential historical witness in Egypt.
• Applying astronomical calculations with ΔT (Earth's rotational deceleration correction) to align eclipse paths with ancient Egyptian geography.
• Using Hittite records of solar omens and the Battle of Kadesh as cross-checks for synchronizing Egyptian and Near Eastern chronologies.
• Cross-referencing lunar dates from Ramesses II’s reign to anchor the timeline, particularly the 'psdntyw day' lunar phase notation.
• Reconstructing the historical sequence by 'island-hopping' from known events (e.g., Ramesses II’s 5th year) backward through astronomical and textual evidence.
• Evaluating radiocarbon dating results (e.g., 1280 ± 12 BCE for Ramesses II’s accession) to test consistency with the proposed eclipse-based chronology.

Experimental results

Research questions

• RQ1 What motivated Akhenaten’s radical shift to monotheistic sun worship, and could solar eclipses have played a formative role?
• RQ2 Could the three annular solar eclipses in 1399, 1389, and 1378 BCE be the historical catalyst for Akhenaten’s religious revolution?
• RQ3 How does the proposed 1382 BCE accession date for Akhenaten compare with established chronologies based on lunar dates and Hittite records?
• RQ4 To what extent do the eclipse events align with the political and religious transitions described in Amarna-period texts?
• RQ5 Can the revised chronology, anchored in eclipse observations, resolve inconsistencies in the synchronism between Egyptian, Hittite, and Assyrian historical records?

Key findings

• The paper proposes that Akhenaten acceded to the throne in 1382 BCE, earlier than the traditionally accepted range of 1350–1330 BCE.
• Three annular solar eclipses in 1399, 1389, and 1378 BCE are posited as possible formative experiences that inspired Akhenaten’s exclusive worship of the sun disc (Aton).
• The alignment of these eclipses with the Hittite solar omen from Muršili I’s reign supports a revised chronology placing Akhenaten’s accession earlier than current consensus.
• The study finds that using the 1340 BCE eclipse date—previously suggested by astronomers—would push Akhenaten’s reign back by 30 years, providing a plausible motive for his religious reforms.
• The revised timeline, supported by lunar dating from Ramesses II’s reign and radiocarbon data, shows consistency with a 'long' chronology, though it remains controversial among Egyptologists.
• The authors argue that the absence of eclipse records in Egyptian texts may be due to political censorship, and that eclipse experiences could have been encoded in symbolic religious language.